Chapter 6
Recognizing, Analyzing, and Constructing Arguments
Please note that some of the items on this post are clickable to further your knowledge on a particular issue/idea/theory.
Please note that some of the items on this post are clickable to further your knowledge on a particular issue/idea/theory.
Goals of this chapter:
1). Learn how to identify an issue.
2). Learn how to recognize the parts of an argument, including the premise, the conclusion, and premise and conclusion indicators
3). Distinguish among an argument, an explanation, and a conditional statement
4). Break down an argument into its premises and conclusion
5). Diagram arguments
6). Construct our own arguments
7). Explore the basics of evaluating arguments
8). We will read about the issue of same-sex marriage and analyze arguments that approach that controversial question from different perspectives.
Arguments and Issues
Arguments help us to analyze issues and to assess whether positions on issues are reasonable or unreasonable. An issue is an ill-defined complex or problems involving a controversy or uncertainty.
Identifying an issue requires clear thinking as well as good communication skills
Argument Recognition
*Rhetoric is the art of persuasion - it is the defense of a particular position usually without adequate consideration of opposing evidence.
*Rhetoric can be useful once you have come to a reasoned conclusion, and are now trying to convince others of this conclusion.
*The goal of rhetoric is to "win". The purpose of argumentation, in contrast, is to discover the truth.
*Arguments are make up of two or more propositions, one of which, the conclusion, is supported by the other(s), the premise(s).
*There are two types of arguments:
1). Deductive Arguments: contain a conclusion that necessarily follows from the premise.
2). Inductive Arguments: The premises provide support but not necessarily proof for the conclusion.
Propositions, conclusions, and premises
*Propositions are statements that express a complete thought. A proposition can either be true or false.
*The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is supported or denied on the basis of other propositions or reasons. Also called claims, viewpoints, and positions, it is what the argument is trying to prove. A conclusion can appear anywhere in an argument.
*Premises are propositions that support or give reasons for acceptance of the argument. Reasoning proceeds from the premises to the conclusion.
*Good premises are based on facts and experience.
There are several types of premises:
*Descriptive premises are based on empirical facts: scientific observation and/or sensory experience.
*Prescriptive premises, in contrast, contain value statements.
*Analogical premises take the form of an analogy in which a comparison is made between two similar events or things.
*Definitional premises contain a definition of a key term for purposes of precision or clarification.
Nonarguments: explanations and conditional statements
*Sometimes we confuse arguments with explanations and conditional statements.
*An explanation is a statement about why or how something is the case.
*A conditional statement is an "if...then..." statement that offers no claim or conclusion.
*Unlike explanations and conditional statements, an argument tries to prove that something is true.
Five criteria for evaluating arguments:
1). Clarity - is the argument clear and unambiguous? Clarifying another person's argument requires good listening skills and openness to ideas that may differ from your own.
2). Credibility - are the premises supported by evidence? Examine each premise carefully. Be alert for assumptions that are passed off as facts.
3). Relevance - are the premises relevant to the conclusion? In addition to being true, the premises should provide good reasons for accepting the conclusion.
4). Completeness - are there any unstated premises and conclusions? This is often the case within arguments that are incompletely researched or loaded with confirmation bias.
5). Soundness - are the premises true, and do they support the conclusion? A sound argument is one in which the premises are true and they support the conclusion.
Constructing an Argument
*Once you know how to identify, deconstruct, and evaluate arguments, you are ready to construct your own. The following eight steps are a useful guide to help you improve the quality of your arguments.
1). Begin by stating the issue. Try to use neutral language.
2). Develop a list of premises. Remain as objective and open-minded as possible.
3). Eliminate weak or irrelevant premises.
4). Establish a conclusion.
5). Organize your argument. Clearly state your conclusion, or thesis statement, in the opening paragraph.
6). Test your argument using others.
7). Revise your argument if necessary.
8). If appropriate, act on your conclusion or solution.
Writing papers using logical arguments
*Writing effective college papers requires the use of good structure, both in your argument and in the paper itself.
*Use the following approach as a guide:
1). Identify the issue
2). Present the premises
3). Present and address counterarguments
4). End the paper with an expanded version of your conclusion. Restate the issue, and summarize your argument thoroughly. Be sure to include references for all facts and evidence used.
8). We will read about the issue of same-sex marriage and analyze arguments that approach that controversial question from different perspectives.
Arguments and Issues
Arguments help us to analyze issues and to assess whether positions on issues are reasonable or unreasonable. An issue is an ill-defined complex or problems involving a controversy or uncertainty.
Identifying an issue requires clear thinking as well as good communication skills
Argument Recognition
*Rhetoric is the art of persuasion - it is the defense of a particular position usually without adequate consideration of opposing evidence.
*Rhetoric can be useful once you have come to a reasoned conclusion, and are now trying to convince others of this conclusion.
*The goal of rhetoric is to "win". The purpose of argumentation, in contrast, is to discover the truth.
*Arguments are make up of two or more propositions, one of which, the conclusion, is supported by the other(s), the premise(s).
*There are two types of arguments:
1). Deductive Arguments: contain a conclusion that necessarily follows from the premise.
2). Inductive Arguments: The premises provide support but not necessarily proof for the conclusion.
Propositions, conclusions, and premises
*Propositions are statements that express a complete thought. A proposition can either be true or false.
*The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is supported or denied on the basis of other propositions or reasons. Also called claims, viewpoints, and positions, it is what the argument is trying to prove. A conclusion can appear anywhere in an argument.
*Premises are propositions that support or give reasons for acceptance of the argument. Reasoning proceeds from the premises to the conclusion.
*Good premises are based on facts and experience.
There are several types of premises:
*Descriptive premises are based on empirical facts: scientific observation and/or sensory experience.
*Prescriptive premises, in contrast, contain value statements.
*Analogical premises take the form of an analogy in which a comparison is made between two similar events or things.
*Definitional premises contain a definition of a key term for purposes of precision or clarification.
Nonarguments: explanations and conditional statements
*Sometimes we confuse arguments with explanations and conditional statements.
*An explanation is a statement about why or how something is the case.
*A conditional statement is an "if...then..." statement that offers no claim or conclusion.
*Unlike explanations and conditional statements, an argument tries to prove that something is true.
Five criteria for evaluating arguments:
1). Clarity - is the argument clear and unambiguous? Clarifying another person's argument requires good listening skills and openness to ideas that may differ from your own.
2). Credibility - are the premises supported by evidence? Examine each premise carefully. Be alert for assumptions that are passed off as facts.
3). Relevance - are the premises relevant to the conclusion? In addition to being true, the premises should provide good reasons for accepting the conclusion.
4). Completeness - are there any unstated premises and conclusions? This is often the case within arguments that are incompletely researched or loaded with confirmation bias.
5). Soundness - are the premises true, and do they support the conclusion? A sound argument is one in which the premises are true and they support the conclusion.
Constructing an Argument
*Once you know how to identify, deconstruct, and evaluate arguments, you are ready to construct your own. The following eight steps are a useful guide to help you improve the quality of your arguments.
1). Begin by stating the issue. Try to use neutral language.
2). Develop a list of premises. Remain as objective and open-minded as possible.
3). Eliminate weak or irrelevant premises.
4). Establish a conclusion.
5). Organize your argument. Clearly state your conclusion, or thesis statement, in the opening paragraph.
6). Test your argument using others.
7). Revise your argument if necessary.
8). If appropriate, act on your conclusion or solution.
Writing papers using logical arguments
*Writing effective college papers requires the use of good structure, both in your argument and in the paper itself.
*Use the following approach as a guide:
1). Identify the issue
2). Present the premises
3). Present and address counterarguments
4). End the paper with an expanded version of your conclusion. Restate the issue, and summarize your argument thoroughly. Be sure to include references for all facts and evidence used.
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